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Human Relations
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Breaking the Glass Ceiling: The Effects of Sex Ratios and Work-Life Programs on Female Leadership at the Top

George F. Dreher

dreher{at}indian.edu

Data, at the level of the corporation, revealed that the percentage of lower-level managerial positions held by women in the 1980s and early 1990s was positively associated with the number of work-life human resource practices provided in 1994 and with the percentage of senior management positions held by women in 1999. In turn, the number of work-life human resource practices provided in 1994 was positively associated with the percentage of senior management positions held by women in 1999 and partially mediated the effect of lower-level female representation on senior level female representation. These results support the blending of a social contact theory perspective and a strategic human resource management perspective when explaining the glass-ceiling phenomenon, and have important implications for managing human resources and individual careers.

Key Words: female leadership • glass ceiling • sex ratios • work-life programs

Human Relations, Vol. 56, No. 5, 541-562 (2003)
DOI: 10.1177/0018726703056005002
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This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Human RelationsHome page
K. S. Lyness and M. B. Kropf
The relationships of national gender equality and organizational support with work-family balance: A study of European managers
Human Relations, January 1, 2005; 58(1): 33 - 60.
[Abstract] [PDF]